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Table 13 Granger causality (1982 to 2021 data)

From: Effects of crude oil prices on copper and maize prices

Null hypothesis (Ho)

χ2

Prob

Result

Copper price does not cause maize price

3.972015

0.2645

Accept

Crude oil price does not cause maize price

1.213336

0.7498

Accept

Copper and crude oil prices do not cause maize price

5.102809

0.5307

Accept

Maize price does not cause copper price

1.01283

0.7981

Accept

Crude oil price does not cause copper price

4.038705

0.2573

Accept

Maize price and crude oil price do not cause copper price

5.13613

0.5265

Accept

Maize price does not cause crude oil price

1.391198

0.7076

Accept

Copper price does not cause crude oil price

17.16264

0.0007

Reject

Copper price and maize price do not cause crude oil price

18.71209

0.0047

Reject